A CRITICAL DISCOURSE ANALYSIS OF GRADE 12 PUPILS’ POOR PERFORMANCE IN THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE EXAMINATIONS IN SELECTED DISTRICTS OF THE COPPERBELT PROVINCE IN ZAMBIA by Lucy Mwesa A Thesis Submitted to the University of Zambia in Partial Fulfilment of the Requirements for the Award of the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Applied Linguistics UNZA 2025 i Declaration I, Lucy Mwesa, do declare that this dissertation is my own work and that it has never been submitted by anyone for any degree or examination at this University or at any other University, and that all the sources I have quoted have been referenced and acknowledged. Full Name: Lucy Mwesa Signed……………………………………………… Date……………………………... ii Copyright All rights reserved. No part of this dissertation may be reproduced, stored in any retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means, photocopying, recording or otherwise without the prior permission of the author or the University of Zambia. Lucy Mwesa iii Approval This dissertation by Lucy Mwesa is approved as a fulfilment of the requirements for the award of a degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Applied Linguistics. Internal Examiner 1 Name of Internal Examiner 1: Prof Peter C. Manchishi Signature:………………………………….. Date: …………………………… Internal Examiner 2 Name of Internal Examiner 2: Dr Geoffrey K. Tambulukani Signature:………………………………….. Date: ………………………….. Examiner 3 Name of External Examiner: Dr Friday Nyimbili Signature:………………………………….. Date: ………………………… Chairperson of the Board of Examiners Name: Dr Lydia Mukuka Mulenga-Hagane Signature:………………………………….. Date:…………………………. Supervisor Name of Supervisor: Prof David Sani Mwanza Signature:………………………………….. Date: ………………………….. iv Dedication I dedicate this work to my beloved late parents, Mrs. Veronica Chabu Kapeya Mwesa and Mr. Stephen Malemba Mwesa, and my family, whose unwavering love and encouragement inspired me to pursue knowledge and strive for the best in life. v Acknowledgments I am deeply grateful to the Almighty God for granting me good health and strength throughout my study. This dissertation would not have been possible without the guidance, support, and encouragement of many individuals and institutions, to whom I extend my heartfelt gratitude. First and foremost, I wish to express my deepest appreciation to my supervisor, Prof David Sani Mwanza. Your invaluable guidance, patience, and constructive feedback have been instrumental in shaping this research. Your expertise, keen eye for detail, and unwavering support have greatly contributed to the quality of this work. I am also grateful to the Co-Supervisor Dr Benson Sitwe Mkandawire for his timely academic guidance, deep insights and patience which have further enriched my academic journey. Your selflessness, commitment, cheerful personality and availability made the journey easier especially in times of uncertainty. My supervisors have deepened my passion for research. I am also grateful to the department for the academic exposure through the NORMA programme, which provided me with the opportunity to engage with other scholars in Norway. I extend special thanks to Prof Anne Danbolt, Dr Kristin Vold Lexander, and Prof Kulbrandstad for their academic insights and encouragement, which have significantly contributed to my intellectual growth. My sincere appreciation also goes to the staff of the Inland University of Applied Sciences for their various forms of assistance. I am deeply indebted to the participants of this study—teachers, pupils, administrators, parents, and examiners—who generously shared their experiences and perspectives, making this research possible. I also extend my gratitude to Dr Michael Chilala, The Executive Director, and Mr. Simwinga from the Examinations Council of Zambia, whose assistance enabled me to obtain the necessary statistical data to support my research. To my family and friends, your constant encouragement, love, and understanding have been my pillar of strength. Special thanks to my family members who sacrificed their financial resources to support my studies. I am indebted to you all. I am particularly grateful to Josephine Chishimba Musonda, Prof Serah Kalambo Mbetwa, and Beggan Mashinja for their unwavering support during the challenging moments of this journey. You provided a shoulder to lean on. vi I also wish to express my appreciation to my Principal, Mr. Chileshe L. D., and the members of staff at Mufulira College of Education for their encouragement and support during my academic journey. I thank Sr. Angela Mwaba and Sr. Lucy Lubumbashi, for their administrative support and availability whenever I needed help. Lastly, I acknowledge the support of my religious family, particularly Sr. Christine Mwape, O.P., and the Immaculate Conception Community, for providing me with the space and support needed to carry out my work. My heartfelt thanks go to St. Rose of Lima Community, Lusaka for their hospitality and support, without which this journey would have been even more challenging. To all who have contributed in ways both big and small, I extend my deepest gratitude. I will forever remain thankful to you all. May God bless you abundantly in ways only He knows best. vii Abstract Performance in English Language has been a source of concern for a long time in Zambian secondary schools. The Examinations Council of Zambia reports from 2014 to 2021 have indicated that many learners perform poorly in English. For this reason, the study endeavoured to investigate the reason behind pupils’ poor performance in English. The research was directed by four objectives:(1) To analyse the quality of Grade 12 English examination questions; (2) To analyse the performance of Grade 12 pupils in English; (3) To examine teachers’ and pupils’ views of factors that contribute to Grade 12 pupils’ poor performance in English examinations; and (4) to suggest strategies that can be used to improve Grade 12 pupils’ performance in English. Rooted in an interpretivist framework and using a qualitative research, interviews, focus groups and document analysis were conducted to collect data. Data was collected from 8 Heads of Departments (2 females and 6 males), 24 teachers (14 females and 10 males), 13 administrators, 5 national examiners, 80 current pupils, 16 alumni, 16 parents, and 2 ECZ officials. The sample size was 164. Results regarding the quality of examination papers revealed both favourable and unfavourable viewpoints. While participants acknowledged that examinations were set by trained professionals, were syllabus-aligned, and tested critical thinking, concerns were raised over ambiguous wording, and limited awareness among stakeholders regarding examination standards. Performance analysis of 164,503 candidates over six years indicated that, 56,816 (G7- G9) pupils performed poorly, 58, 273 fell in G4-G6 category which was the average performance category and only 49, 414 fell in the high performance category (G1-G3) highlighting a discrepancy in achievement levels in the Copperbelt Province. Equally the eight schools that were sampled showed performance below average for the six year period reviewed. Insights from teachers and examiners revealed that pupils faced difficulties in grammar structures, composition writing, reading comprehension and summary writing because of a lack of practice, restricted vocabulary, and minimal exposure to reading materials. Contributing factors were divided into four categories: (1) teacher-related factors, encompassing absenteeism, low motivation, insufficient lesson preparation, incomplete syllabus coverage and inconsistent feedback; (2) School-related factors included over-enrolment, resource scarcity, inadequate monitoring, limited professional development opportunities; (3) Learner-related factors such as absenteeism, inability to read and write, informal language use, poor conduct, lack of viii parental involvement, lack of role models in community, long distance to school and (4) Policy-related factors, highlighted were the elimination of English as a mandatory passing subject at Grade 9 level, abolition of cut-off points at Grade 9 and flaws in the Re-Entry Policy (REP). To improve the English language proficiency and performance, the research suggested boosting teacher motivation, expanding infrastructure, employing additional teachers, enhancing monitoring, creating functional libraries in schools, and providing access to free online additional resources for literacy enhancement. Furthermore, it supports changes in policy, such as making English a mandatory passing subject again at every examination level and re-assessing the REP. The research is based on self-efficacy theory, expectancy theory and critical discourse analysis theory providing a comprehensive insight into the difficulties faced by Grade 12 pupils in English. The results offer essential perspectives for educators, policy makers, and stakeholders aiming to enhance English language teaching with the view to improving English examination performance in Zambia. Key words: Grade 12, examinations, poor performance, proficiency, quality, critical discourse, Copperbelt Province ix TABLE OF CONTENTS Declaration............................................................................................................................. i Copyright .............................................................................................................................. ii Approval .............................................................................................................................. iii Dedication ............................................................................................................................ iv Acknowledgments ................................................................................................................. v Abstract .............................................................................................................................. vii List of tables ..................................................................................................................... xvii List of Figures .................................................................................................................. xviii Abbreviations ..................................................................................................................... xix List of Figures ..................................................................................................................... xx CHAPTER ONE ................................................................................................................... 1 INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................ 1 1.0 Overview......................................................................................................................... 1 1.1 Background of the study .................................................................................................. 1 1.1.1 The status and functions of English in Zambia .............................................................. 1 1.1.2 The Role of English in Zambia and the world ............................................................... 2 1.1.3 The Zambian English Curriculum ................................................................................. 6 1.1.4 The Importance of Examinations in Education .............................................................. 7 1.1.5 Structure of Grade 12 Examinations ............................................................................. 7 1.1.6 Performance in the Zambian Education System ............................................................ 8 Table 1: National Grade 12 English Language Results from 2018 to 2023............................. 9 Table 2: National Grade 12 result statistics in percentage .................................................... 10 Table 3: National Grade 12 result statistics in actual numbers ............................................. 11 Table 4: National Grade 12 cumulative result statistics for G7, G8 and G9 .......................... 12 1.2 Statement of the Problem .............................................................................................. 14 1. 3. Purpose of the Study .................................................................................................... 14 1.4 Research objectives ....................................................................................................... 14 1.4.1 Research questions ..................................................................................................... 15 1.5 Significance of the study ............................................................................................... 15 1.6 Delimitation of study ..................................................................................................... 15 1.7 Limitation of the study .................................................................................................. 16 1.9 Key operational terms ................................................................................................... 18 1.10 Summary ..................................................................................................................... 19 CHAPTER TWO ................................................................................................................ 20 x REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE ........................................................................... 20 2.0 Overview ................................................................................................................... 20 2.1 Quality of Grade 12 English Examination Questions .................................................. 20 2.3 Performance of Grade 12 Pupils in English Subject ................................................... 28 2.4 School Certificate Examination Performance ............................................................. 33 2.5 AO1 Knowledge of Vocabulary ................................................................................. 33 2.6 AO2 Application of Language Structures ................................................................... 33 2.7 AO3 Comprehension of Passages/Texts ..................................................................... 34 2.8 AO4 Synthesis and Evaluation of Information (Summary) ......................................... 34 2.9 AO5 Analysis and Synthesis of Information (Composition) ....................................... 34 2.10 High Performing Candidates .................................................................................... 35 2.11 Average Performing Candidates ............................................................................... 35 2.12 Low Performing Candidates ..................................................................................... 36 2.13 Factors Contributing to Poor Performance in the English Subject Examinations ....... 36 2.14 Strategies to Improve Performance in English Subject Examinations in Secondary Schools ............................................................................................................................ 56 2.15 Conclusion ............................................................................................................... 65 CHAPTER THREEE .......................................................................................................... 66 THEORETICAL FRAME ................................................................................................... 66 3.0 Overview ................................................................................................................... 66 3.1 Expectancy Theory .................................................................................................... 66 3.2 Critical Discourse Analysis ........................................................................................ 68 3.3 Self-Efficacy Theory .................................................................................................. 73 3.3.1 Self-Efficacy and English Examination Performance .............................................. 75 3.3.2 Conclusion .............................................................................................................. 76 3.4 Chapter summary ....................................................................................................... 77 CHAPTER FOUR ............................................................................................................... 78 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY ........................................................................................ 78 4.0 Overview ................................................................................................................... 78 4.1 Research Paradigm .................................................................................................... 78 4.1.1 Interpretivist Paradigm ............................................................................................ 79 4.1.2 Ontology in the Interpretivist Paradigm ................................................................... 80 4.2 Research Approach .................................................................................................... 82 4.3 Research Design ........................................................................................................ 83 4.3.1 Justification for using a descriptive case study design ............................................. 84 4.4 Population ................................................................................................................. 84 xi 4.5 Sampling Methods ..................................................................................................... 84 4.5.1 Purposive Sampling ................................................................................................ 85 4.5.1.1 Snowball Sampling .............................................................................................. 86 4.6 Sample Size ............................................................................................................... 86 4.7 Data Collection Methods and Data Collection Instruments ......................................... 87 4.7.1 Document Analysis ................................................................................................. 87 4.7.2 Interviews ............................................................................................................... 88 4.7.3 Focus Group Discussions ........................................................................................ 89 4.8 Data Analysis ............................................................................................................ 91 4.9 Trustworthiness ......................................................................................................... 91 4.10 Ethical Considerations ............................................................................................. 93 CHAPTER FIVE ................................................................................................................ 95 PRESENTATION OF FINDINGS ...................................................................................... 95 5.0 Overview ................................................................................................................... 95 5.1 HODs’ Demographics ................................................................................................ 96 5.1.1 Table 6 .................................................................................................................... 96 5.1.2 Teachers’ Demographics ......................................................................................... 97 5.1.2.1 Table 7 ................................................................................................................. 97 5.1.3.1 Current Grade 12 Pupils ....................................................................................... 98 5.1.3.2 Grade 12 Alumni ................................................................................................. 98 5.2 How is the Quality of Grade 12 Examination Questions? ........................................... 99 5.2.1 Examination Papers for 2018 .................................................................................. 99 5.2.2 Examination Papers for 2021 ................................................................................ 114 5.2.4 Teachers’ Perspectives on the Quality of Grade 12 Examination Questions ........... 137 5.2.5 Positive Perceptions about the Quality of Examination Questions ......................... 137 5.2.5.1 Examination Questions are Uniformly Equitable ................................................ 137 5.2.5.2 Examination questions are of good quality because they are set by trained teachers. ...................................................................................................................................... 137 5.2.5.3 Questions in the Examination papers are consistent with the syllabus content .... 138 5.2.5.4 Exanimation Questions also Test Critical Thinking ............................................ 138 5.2.6 Negative Perceptions about the Quality of Examination Questions ........................ 138 5.2.6.1 Same Questions Being Repeated in Different Examination Years....................... 138 5.2.6.3 Lack of knowledge of the quality of the examination papers by some participants ...................................................................................................................................... 139 5. 3 How is the performance of Grade 12 pupils in English in the Copperbelt Province? 140 xii 5.3.1 Grade 12 Pupils’ Examination Performance from 2018 to 2023 in the Copperbelt Province ........................................................................................................................ 140 5.3.2 Examination results for 2018 to 2023 Per School .................................................. 144 5.3.2.1 Examination Results for School 1 ...................................................................... 144 5.3.2.2 Examinations Results for School 2 ..................................................................... 146 5.3.2.4 Examinations Results for School 4 ..................................................................... 150 5.3.2.5 Examinations Results for School 5 ..................................................................... 152 5.3.2.6 Examinations Results for School 6 ..................................................................... 154 5.3.2.7 Examination Results for School 7 ...................................................................... 156 5.3.2.7 Examinations Results for School 8 ..................................................................... 157 5.3. Teachers’ and Examiners’ Perspectives on Grade 12 Pupils’ Performance in English ...................................................................................................................................... 159 5.3.1 Learners’ Performance in Structure ....................................................................... 159 5.3.2 Pupils’ Performance in Composition ..................................................................... 160 5.3.3 Learners’ Performance in Reading Comprehension ............................................... 161 5.3.4 Learners’ Performance in Summary Writing ......................................................... 162 5.4. Summary of findings to Objective two .................................................................... 163 CHAPTER SIX ................................................................................................................. 164 PRESENTATION OF FINDINGS .................................................................................... 164 6.0 Overview ................................................................................................................. 164 6.1 What are the factors that contribute To Poor Grade 12 Pupils’ Performance in English? ...................................................................................................................................... 164 6.1.1 Teacher Related Factors ........................................................................................ 164 6.1.1.1 Absenteeism by teachers and reporting late for work/lessons .............................. 164 6.1.1.2 Low motivation among teachers ......................................................................... 165 6.1.1.3 Lack of or Inadequate Preparation for Lessons ................................................... 166 6.1.1.4 Incomplete Syllabus Coverage ........................................................................... 167 6.1.1.5 Lack of Feedback or Inconsistent Feedback ....................................................... 168 6. 2 School Related Factors ........................................................................................... 168 6.2.1 Over-enrolment and its effects in schools .............................................................. 169 6.2.2 Limited Classrooms .............................................................................................. 169 6.2.3 Lack of and Inadequate Teaching Materials .......................................................... 170 6.2.4 Absence of Libraries in Schools ............................................................................ 170 6.2.5 Lack of Technology .............................................................................................. 171 The respondents reported that teachers relied on traditional methods of teaching using .. 171 6.2.6 Lack of or Inconsistent Monitoring ....................................................................... 172 xiii 6.2.7 Limited Opportunities for Professional Development ............................................ 173 6.3 Learner Related Factors ........................................................................................... 174 6.3.1 Absenteeism by Learners ...................................................................................... 174 6.3.2 Learner Inability to Read and Write ...................................................................... 174 6.3.3 Limited Vocabulary among Learners .................................................................... 175 6.3.4 Poor Conduct by Some Learners ........................................................................... 176 6.3.5 The Use of the Informal Variety of English ........................................................... 177 6.3.6 Long Distance to School ....................................................................................... 178 6.3.7 Lack of Parental Support ....................................................................................... 179 6.3.8 Lack of Role Models in the Community ................................................................ 179 6. 4 Policy Related Factors ............................................................................................ 180 6.4.1 Removal of English as a Compulsory Passing Subject at Grade 9 ......................... 180 6.4.2 Abolition of cut off points for Grade 9 examinations ............................................. 181 6.4.3 The Pitfalls of the Re-Entry Policy ........................................................................ 182 6.5 What strategies can be used to improve pupils' performance in Grade 12 examinations in secondary schools in the Copperbelt Province? .......................................................... 183 6.5.1 Improve school based and district based monitoring and supervision .................... 183 6.5.2 Motivate teachers through incentivisation ............................................................. 184 6.5.3 Heads of department should ensure each teacher has a lesson plan before going to teach .............................................................................................................................. 184 6.5.4 Reduced workload for teachers ............................................................................. 185 6.5.5 Infrastructure Expansion ....................................................................................... 186 6.5.6 Employment of more teachers ............................................................................... 186 6.5.7 Multi-sectoral approach to provision of adequate teaching and learning materials . 187 6.5.8 Use of free online English language resources ....................................................... 188 6.5.9 Provision of Learning Opportunities for Teachers ................................................. 188 6.5.10 Reduce travel time from home to school by constructing more schools ............... 188 6.5.11 Teachers to collaborate with parents to tackle learner absenteeism ...................... 189 6.5.12 Establishing Functional Libraries to Provide Literacy Materials .......................... 190 6.5.13 Use of Various Techniques to Teach Reading and Writing .................................. 190 6.5.14 Improve learner conduct through a strict school code of ethics ............................ 191 6.5.15 Establish mentorship programmes to improve learner motivation ........................ 191 6.5.16 Encourage learners to practise formal English in and outside the classroom ........ 192 6.5.17 Abolish Re-Entry Policy ..................................................................................... 192 6.5.18 Making English a compulsory passing subject at every examination level ........... 193 6.6 Conclusion ............................................................................................................... 193 xiv CHAPTER SEVEN ........................................................................................................... 195 DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS .......................................................................................... 195 7.0 Overview ................................................................................................................. 195 7.1 ANALYSE THE QUALITY OF GRADE 12 FINAL EXAMINATION QUESTIONS ...................................................................................................................................... 195 7.1.1 Mismatch between Syllabus content and Examination content .............................. 195 7.1.2 Examination Questions Test Wide Range of Cognitive Skills ................................ 198 7.1.3 Clarity in the Formulation of Questions ................................................................ 199 7.1.4 Teachers and HODs’ Perspectives on the Quality of Grade 12 Examination Questions ...................................................................................................................................... 201 7.1.4.1 Uniformity of Examinations Papers .................................................................... 201 7.1.4.2 ECZ Trained Examiners and the Quality of Examination Questions ................... 203 7.1.4.3 The Perception of Question Repetition across Examination Years ...................... 204 7.1.4.4 Limited Teacher Awareness of Examination paper Quality ................................ 204 7.1.4.5 The Need for Assessment Quality Training for Teachers .................................... 206 7.2 ANALYSIS OF THE PERFORMANCE OF GRADE 12 PUPILS IN ENGLISH .... 207 Overall Analysis of Poor Performance in English Language Examinations .................... 209 7.2.1. Performance Analysis of school 1 ........................................................................ 209 7.2.3 Performance Analysis of School 3 ........................................................................ 214 7.2.4 Performance Analysis of School 4 ........................................................................ 216 7.2.5 Performance Analysis of School 5 ........................................................................ 218 7.2.6 Performance Analysis of School 6 ........................................................................ 220 7.2.7 Performance Analysis of School 7 ........................................................................ 221 7.2.1.0 Teachers’ and Examiners’ Perspectives on Grade 12 Pupils’ Performance in English .......................................................................................................................... 225 7.2.1.1 Learners’ Performance in Structure .................................................................... 225 7.2.1.2 Pupils’ Performance in Composition .................................................................. 226 7.2.1.3 Learners’ Performance in Reading Comprehension ............................................ 226 7.2.1.4 Learners’ Performance in Summary Writing ...................................................... 228 7.3 EXAMINE TEACHER AND LEARNER VIEWS OF FACTORS CONTRIBUTING TO POOR ENGLISH PERFORMANCE AMONG GRADE 12 PUPILS IN THE SELECTED SECONDARY SCHOOLS IN THE COPPERBELT PROVINCE ............. 229 7.3.1 Teacher Related Factors ........................................................................................ 229 7.3.1.1 Absenteeism by teachers and reporting late for work/lessons .............................. 229 7.3.1.2 Low motivation among teachers ......................................................................... 230 7.3.1.3 Lack of or Inadequate Preparation for Lessons ................................................... 232 7.3.1.4 Incomplete Syllabus Coverage ........................................................................... 233 xv 7.3.1.5 Lack of Feedback or Inconsistent Feedback ....................................................... 235 7.3.2 School Related Factors .......................................................................................... 237 7.3.2.1 Over-enrolment and its effects in schools ........................................................... 237 7.3.2.2 Lack and Inadequate Teaching Materials ............................................................ 238 7.3.2.3Absence of Libraries in Schools .......................................................................... 239 7.3.2.4 Lack of Technological tools ............................................................................... 240 7.3.2.5 Lack of or Inconsistent Monitoring .................................................................... 241 7.3.2.6 Limited Opportunities for Professional Development ......................................... 243 7.3.3.1 Absenteeism by Learners ................................................................................... 244 7.3.3.2 Learner Inability to Read and Write ................................................................... 245 7.3.3.3 Limited Vocabulary among Learners ................................................................. 247 7.3.3.4 Poor Conduct by Some Learners ........................................................................ 247 7.3.3.5 The Use of the Informal Variety of English ........................................................ 248 7.3.3.6 Long Distance to School .................................................................................... 249 7.3.3.7 Lack of Parental Support .................................................................................... 250 7.3.3.8 Lack of Role Models in the Community ............................................................. 251 7.3.4 Policy Related Factors .......................................................................................... 251 7.3.4.1 Removal of English as a Compulsory Passing Subject at Grade 9 ....................... 252 7.3.4.2 Abolition of cut off points for Grade 9 examinations .......................................... 252 7.3.4.3 The Pitfalls of the Re-Entry Policy ..................................................................... 253 7.4 What strategies can be used to improve pupils' performance in Grade 12 examinations in secondary schools in the Copperbelt Province? .......................................................... 254 7.4.1 Improve school based and district based monitoring and supervision .................... 254 7.4.2 Motivate teachers through incentivisation ............................................................. 255 7.4.3 Reduced workload for teachers ............................................................................. 256 7.4.4 Infrastructure Expansion ....................................................................................... 257 7.4.5 Employment of more teachers ............................................................................... 258 7.4.6 Multi-sectoral approach to provision of adequate teaching and learning materials . 259 7.4.7 Provision of Learning Opportunities for Teachers ................................................. 260 7.4.8 Reduce Travel Time from Home to School by Constructing More Schools ........... 261 7.4.9 Teachers to Collaborate with Parents to Tackle Learner Absenteeism ................... 262 7.4.10 Establishing Functional Libraries to Provide Literacy Materials .......................... 263 7.4.11 Use of Various Techniques to Teach Reading and Writing .................................. 264 7.4.12 Improve Learner Conduct through a Strict School Code of Ethics ....................... 265 7.4.13 Establish mentorship programmes to improve learner motivation ........................ 265 7.4.14 Encourage learners to practise formal English in and outside the classroom. ....... 266 xvi 7.4.15 Making English a compulsory passing subject at every examination level. .......... 268 7.4.16 Abolish Re-Entry Policy. .................................................................................... 269 7.5 Conclusion ............................................................................................................... 269 CHAPTER EIGHT ........................................................................................................... 272 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS ............................................................... 272 8.0 Overview ................................................................................................................. 272 8.1 Conclusion - Objective 1 .......................................................................................... 272 Implications for the Nation ............................................................................................ 273 Implications for the Nation ............................................................................................ 274 8.3.3.1 Learner Absenteeism .......................................................................................... 275 8.3.3.2 Learner Inability to Read and Write ................................................................... 275 8.3.3.3 Limited Vocabulary ........................................................................................... 275 8.3.3.4 Use of the Informal Variety of English ............................................................... 275 8.3.3.5 Disruptive Behaviour among Learners ............................................................... 276 Implications for the Nation ............................................................................................ 276 8.3.3.6 Overall Implication ............................................................................................ 276 8.4.1 Removal of English as a Compulsory Passing Subject .......................................... 276 Implications for the Nation ............................................................................................ 276 8.4.2 Removal of Cut-Off Points for Grade 9 Examinations ........................................... 277 Implications for the Nation ............................................................................................ 277 8.4. 3 The Re-Entry Policy ............................................................................................ 277 8.4.3.1 Implications for the Nation ................................................................................. 277 8.4.4 Overall Implication ............................................................................................... 277 8.5 The Contribution of this Study to the Body of Knowledge ....................................... 278 8.6 Recommendations.................................................................................................... 279 8.6.1 Examinations Council of Zambia should ............................................................... 279 REFERENCES ................................................................................................................. 281 xvii List of tables Table 1: National Grade 12 English Language Results from 2018 to 2023............................. 9 Table 2: National Grade 12 result statistics in percentage .................................................... 10 Table 3: National Grade 12 result statistics in actual numbers ............................................. 11 Table 4: National Grade 12 cumulative result statistics for G7, G8 and G9…………………12 Table 6 HODs’ Demographics ………………………………..………………………96 Table 7 Teachers’ Demographics………………...………………………………………......97 Table 16: Provincial Grade 12 result statistics…………………....…………….…………..141 Table 17: Summary of Provincial result statistics……….…………....………...…………..142 Table 18: Provincial Cumulative Poor Performance ……………………………….……...143 Table 19: School 1 Grade Distribution ……………………...…………………..….……...145 Table 20: School 1 Cumulative Poor Performance ……………………...………….……..145 Table 21: School 2 Grade Distribution ……………………...…………………..….……..146 Table 22: School 2 Cumulative Poor Performance ……………………...………….……..147 Table 23: School 3 Grade Distribution ……………………...…………………….….…...148 Table 24: School 3 Cumulative Poor Performance ………………..……...…….….……....149 Table 25: School 4 Grade Distribution ……………………...…………………….………150 Table 26: School 4 Cumulative Poor Performance ………………..……...………….…….150 Table 27: School 5 Grade Distribution ……………………...…………………….………151 Table 28: School 5 Cumulative Poor Performance ………………..……...………………..152 Table 29: School 6 Grade Distribution ……………………...…………………….………153 Table 30: School 6 Cumulative Poor Performance ………………..……...……………......153 Table 31: School 7 Grade Distribution ……………………...…………………….……....154 Table 32: School 7 Cumulative Poor Performance ………………..……...………………..155 Table 33: School 8 Grade Distribution ……………………...…………………….………156 Table 34: School 8 Cumulative Poor Performance ………………..……...………………..156 file:///E:/Lucy%20Mwesa%20PhD%20Thesis%202025%20REVISED.docx%23_Toc193839036 file:///E:/Lucy%20Mwesa%20PhD%20Thesis%202025%20REVISED.docx%23_Toc193839037 file:///E:/Lucy%20Mwesa%20PhD%20Thesis%202025%20REVISED.docx%23_Toc193839038 file:///E:/Lucy%20Mwesa%20PhD%20Thesis%202025%20REVISED.docx%23_Toc193839039 file:///E:/Lucy%20Mwesa%20PhD%20Thesis%202025%20REVISED.docx%23_Toc193839103 file:///E:/Lucy%20Mwesa%20PhD%20Thesis%202025%20REVISED.docx%23_Toc193839104 xviii List of Figures Figure 5: Research Site…………. ……………………………..…………………….…....17 Figure 8: Current Grade 12 Pupils ………………………………..………………………....98 Figure 9: Grade 12 Alumni …………………………………………..……………..……….98 Figure 10: 2018 English Paper 1 ……………………………….…..………………..…….100 Figure 11: 2018 English Paper 2 …………………………………………………....……..104 Figure 12: 2021 English Paper 1 ……………………………………………………..…….115 Figure 13: 2021 English Paper 2 …………………………………………………..……….118 Figure 14: 2023 English Paper 1 ……………………………………….………..…………127 Figure 15: 2023 English Paper 2 ……………………………………..…………….………129 xix Abbreviations Ab Absentees CDA Critical Discourse Analysis CPD Continuous Professional Development CSR Corporate Social Responsibility DEBS District Education Board Secretary DESO District Education Standards Officer ECZ Examinations Council of Zambia EFL English as a Foreign Language EPI English Proficiency Index ESL English as a Second Language FGD Focus Group Discussion GCE General Certificate of Education HOD Head of Department ICTs Information and Communication Technologies LATAZ Language Teachers’ Association of Zambia MoE Ministry of Education MoGE Ministry of General Education REP Re-Entry Policy SESO Senior Education Standards Officer SES Socio-economic status SET Self-efficacy Theory PTA Parent Teacher Association PPP Private-Public Partnerships xx List of Figures Figure 1: National Performance Trends Figure 2: National Grade 12 English Examination Statistics Figure 3: National Examination Statistics Figure 4: National Cumulative Poor Performance Figure 5: HODs’ Demographics Figure 6: Teachers’ Demographics Figure 7: Current Grade 12 Pupils Figure 8: Former Grade 12 Pupils Figure 9: 2018 English Paper 1 Figure 10: 2018 Grade 12 English Paper 2 Figure 11: 2021 Grade 12 English Paper 1 Figure 12: 2021 Grade 12 English Paper 2 Figure 13: 2023 Grade 12 English Paper 1 Figure 14: 2023 Grade 12 English Paper 2 Figure 15: National Grade 12 English Examination Statistics Figure 16: Provincial Performance Trends (2018–2023). Figure 17: Summary of provincial examination results Figure 18: Grade 12 Provincial Cumulative Poor Performance Figure 19: School 1 Grade Distribution Figure 20: School 1Cumulative Poor Performance Figure 21: School 2 Grade Distribution Figure 22: School 2 Cumulative Poor Performance Figure 23: School 3 Grade Distribution Figure 24: School 3 Cumulative Poor Performance Figure 24: School 4 Grade Distribution Figure 25: School 4 Cumulative Poor Performance Figure 26: School 5 Grade Distribution School 27: School 5 Cumulative Poor Performance Figure 28: School 6 Grade Distribution Figure 29: School 6 Cumulative Poor Performance Figure 30: School 7 Grade Distribution Figure 31: School 7 Cumulative Poor Performance Figure 32: School 8 Grade Distribution xxi Figure 33: School 8 Cumulative Poor Performance 1 CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION 1.0 Overview This chapter presents the introductory part of this dissertation. It gives the background to the study by explaining the status of English in Zambian schools and pupils` performance trend in the English language national examinations. Further, the chapter gives the problem statement, objectives and research questions, the significance and justification of the study, the limitations, delimitation as well as the chapter summary. 1.1 Background of the study 1.1.1 The status and functions of English in Zambia In examining the current state of the English language proficiency among pupils, this chapter investigates several key areas. Firstly, it evaluates the historical and educational context of the English language instruction in Zambia, tracing how past policies and educational reforms have shaped the present scenario. The official status of English in Zambia has an historical background to the country’s quest for national unity highlighted by the national motto “One Zambia, one nation.” Zambia’s cultural and linguistic diversity prompted the newly independent nation to find a common language that would cut across the approximately seventy three (73) indigenous and regional languages spoken in Zambia. The ratification of the use of English as the official language came into effect after the attainment of Zambia’s independence in 1964. The status of the English language started to gain ground after independence. Simwinga (2009) explains that in June 1965, in the newly established Republic of Zambia, the cabinet deliberated on the issue and on the advice of the then Minister of Education, Mr. J. M. Mwanakatwe, decided to legislate on the Hardman recommendation, which became enshrined in the 1966 Education Act. There was also a belief that the earlier a language was started the better, so English was formally adopted, for the first time, as the medium of instruction from the beginning of Grade 1 to the end of tertiary education. Considerable resources were committed over the following years to establishing and running what was initially called the English Medium Scheme, later to be called, the New Zambia Primary Course. It was from this period that the status of the English language was raised and its functions changed the landscape of Zambia forever. Since then, the status of English in Zambia is far superior 2 to that of Zambian languages. While English is vital for education in Zambia, it is important to recognise that Zambia is a multilingual country with numerous indigenous languages. Efforts have been made to promote the preservation and teaching of these languages alongside English to maintain the cultural and linguistic diversity. After independence Zambia did not have a language whose speakers were more than 50%, so for reasons of national unity, Simwinga (2008:143) observed that ‘Zambia chose the English language to be the official language due to “the fear of ethno- linguistic rivalry in case of any of the local languages was selected.” As observed by Marten & Kula (2008) English was the only “non-tribal” language available to present that national unity. Furthermore, Lungu (1988) noted that English was seen as the neutral language acceptable to all the divergent linguistic and ethnic groups. 1.1.2 The Role of English in Zambia and the world There are various reasons for favouring English as the language to be learned, ranging from the need for business and trade, academic pursuit, cultural and technological contact, to political convenience. English plays a major role in business and education. In establishing its status, one has only to look at the role English plays in the Zambian society. At the national level, English is: The language used by the administration at all levels, central, provincial and district. In parliament, in the courts of law, at meetings of city and municipal councils, in the more advanced industrial and commercial institutions, banks, post offices and others. English is the effective instrument for the transaction of business (Mwanakatwe, 1974:213). Other scholars have ascertained the importance of English. “As a second language, English is spoken by people in the countries as the official language” (Crystal, 1997:4), “ … or the language of the administration” (Graddol, 1997:11). The knowledge of English language is important for educational, economic and national development of a country (Awoniyi, 1978; Hall, 2017; Hyon et al., 2018). The importance of the English language in Zambia cuts across different spheres of life. To pursue higher education abroad or take part in international academic collaborations and exchanges Zambian students must be proficient in English. English is the primary language of instruction at many of the best universities and many research centres in the world. English is a language that many nations use to draw in foreign 3 faculty and students, encourage cross-national research partnerships, and raise the standard of higher education. Furthermore, it fosters cross-cultural communication. It gives students in Zambia the opportunity to participate in cultural exchange programmes with nations across Africa and the rest of the world. It also allows them to gain knowledge about various cultures, viewpoints, and concepts. Literature, art, and culture are widely available worldwide in the English language. Countries can engage in international cultural exchanges and market their own traditions and culture to a global audience by utilising English in the classroom. Thus, proficiency in English is necessary for scholastic success or academic advancement. Lack of proficiency in English has an impact on scholarship opportunities. Scholarships, whether from government or private organisations, often have academic eligibility requirements, which may include specific grades in English. Failing English can disqualify students from scholarship opportunities (Ma & Lin, 2023). English proficiency is linked to personal and professional development. It provides access to a vast array of resources, including professional development courses, online learning platforms, and global networking opportunities. This continuous learning and development contribute to career advancement and personal enrichment (Education First, 2020). The Education Act of 2011 gives legal guidance on language of instruction in Zambia. It prescribes the use of the English language as the official Language of Instruction from Early Childhood Education (ECE) to Tertiary. English is the medium of instruction in education in all schools from ECE through to tertiary education. (2023 Zambia Education Curriculum Framework). The English Language is compulsory in the primary and secondary school curriculum and the rest of the subjects make use of the English Language as the medium of instruction except the seven selected zonal languages. The English language plays an important role and facilitates overall learning in schools. Mastery of English is indispensable for learners to excel academically, as all key subjects in secondary and tertiary education are taught and examined in English (Mwanza, 2016). Because of using English in various key sectors of the country, the language has gained a higher status than ethnic languages. Mwanza (2016:39) states that, “Zambians are eager to learn the English language due to its economic value and prospects that come with the acquisition of English language proficiency.” Mwanza’s observation is supported by other scholars. Kula (2008:6), for 4 instance also confirmed the important position of the English Language by stating that, “The predominant use of English in the media, government and education means knowledge of English is extremely important for finding employment, at least in the ‘formal’ sector, and English thus has a relatively high social status in Zambia.” English is frequently regarded as an essential skill in the global job market. Candidates with strong English communication skills are given preference by employers because it is necessary for corresponding with partners, clients, and co-workers around the world. Moonga (2020) postulates that English proficiency is a prerequisite for employment in both the public and private sectors, where effective communication skills are highly valued. According to a Cambridge English survey (2016), 85% of employers use English as their primary language of communication and 95% of employers think that English is important for their business. Proficiency in English broadens economic prospects. In Zambia, many job opportunities, particularly in sectors like tourism, hospitality, and international trade, require strong English skills. English is closely linked with enhanced economic potential as it serves as the primary language for business and commerce globally. Being fluent in English can significantly improve a person's employability and provide access to international job markets. Multinational corporations, which operate across various countries, often adopt English as their working language to ensure effective communication and operational efficiency across their global offices. Employees who are proficient in English have an advantage in securing jobs within these companies, leading to better career opportunities and professional development (Cambridge English, 2016). In Zambia, many multinational companies also use English as their main business language. On a macroeconomic level, countries with higher levels of English proficiency tend to have stronger economic growth. The English Proficiency Index (EPI) by Education First (2020) reveals a correlation between a country's English skills and its economic performance, suggesting that English proficiency can be a key driver of economic competitiveness and innovation. Zambia recognises English as its official language, utilising it across government, administrative, and legal sectors. This establishes English as essential for communication in official and formal settings. Beyond its official status in government institutions, English plays a pivotal role in international business, information and communication technologies (ICTs), science, and serves as the language of instruction 5 in Zambian schools and universities. Most textbooks, instructional materials, and examinations are provided in English, ensuring learners’ access to extensive educational resources and opportunities. Other motivations for choosing English as the only official language have been its connotation to modernisation, prestige and international connections (Mwelwa & Spencer 2013). English enables people access to global knowledge because it is the dominant language of global communication, science, technology, and business. Much of the world's scientific, technological, and academic knowledge is documented in English. By teaching in English, countries aim to give their students access to a wealth of information and resources. Proficiency in English enables Zambian learners to access information and knowledge from around the world, which is vital for their education and future career prospects. The English language is the means by which pupils process and acquire knowledge and skills in school and then demonstrate their learning in every subject on the curriculum. Without English, learners would struggle across the curriculum. The English language is an enabler, since it is the language of instruction in Zambia. As Chishiba and Manchishi (2016) highlight, English serves as the primary medium of instruction in the Zambian education system, playing a crucial role in knowledge acquisition and academic success Similarly, Mkandawire (2017) highlights that English proficiency enhances pupils' reading, writing, and comprehension skills, which are crucial for academic success. Beyond the classroom, English is also the primary language of the internet, scientific research, and technological advancements (Zambia, 2024). Consequently, proficiency in English enables pupils to access a vast array of information and resources online. It empowers them to engage with global media, stay informed about current events, and critically evaluate information from various sources. Furthermore, DevTech Systems Inc. (2022) notes that English proficiency plays an important role in learners’ ability to interact with digital resources, increasing their learning opportunities and future career prospects. At the personal and interpersonal level, English is used primarily for communication between Zambians. Moody (1984) stated that Zambia has a multiplicity of indigenous languages and Zambians who communicate with each other outside their first language groups often choose to do so through English. It improves communication. Proficiency 6 in English can lead to improved communication skills, which are valuable in various aspects of life, including social interactions and career advancement. Evidently, English in Zambia is used for official, social and interpersonal communication in addition to its use for wider communication. It thus enjoys a privileged position which is extended to all sectors of the social life and economy of the Zambian people. The importance of English in education advancement and global employability cannot be overstated. It is a vital tool for accessing knowledge, pursuing higher education, and thriving in the international job market. As the world becomes increasingly interconnected, proficiency in English will continue to be a significant asset, enhancing educational opportunities and employability on a global scale. 1.1.3 The Zambian English Curriculum The Zambian curriculum has set goals that learners need to attain. According to the Zambian Curriculum learners who have reached Grade ten (10) are expected to communicate effectively and appropriately in English in various social contexts; to recognize and apply the difference between spoken and written English and to read and understand various types of texts, including fiction, non-fiction, and poetry. This includes the analysis of literary elements and techniques. The curriculum also focuses on developing writing skills, including essay writing, creative writing, and formal letters. Emphasis on grammar, punctuation, and vocabulary is also important. Teachers are expected to help learners develop effective oral communication skills, including public speaking, presentations, and discussions. In-depth study of English grammar rules and usage, including syntax and semantics is emphasised in the curriculum. As learners advance to Grade eleven (11) they are expected to undertake Advanced Reading and Analysis building upon the skills from Grade 10. In Grade 11 learners delve into more complex texts and analyse them critically. This may include plays, novels, and essays. Further development of essay writing skills, argumentative writing, and literary analysis essays is spelt out in the curriculum. Emphasis is on clear and concise writing. At this level of education, learners are exposed to refining oral communication skill, which can be attained through formal debates, group discussions, and persuasive speeches. The curriculum also emphasises continued study of advanced grammar rules and syntactical structures. 7 At Grade 12 level, learners are expected to display advanced writing skills, including research papers, literary critiques, and extended essays. They should show advanced public speaking skills, including the ability to present and defend complex ideas. It is at this stage teachers are expected to prepare learners for national examinations. According to the curriculum objectives, teachers should prepare and give comprehensive assessments to assess all language skills just as the final national examinations do. 1.1.4 The Importance of Examinations in Education Examinations serve as an important measure of academic achievement and a determinant of pupils' future educational and career opportunities (Linn, 2000). They assess learners' comprehension, retention, and application of knowledge while providing feedback for teachers and policymakers to improve educational systems (Harlen, 2007). In Zambia, the Grade 12 English Language examination is a high-stakes assessment that determines pupils' eligibility for tertiary education and professional training (Kalinde & Verster, 2016). Poor performance in this examination not only limits pupils' academic progression but also affects their ability to participate effectively in national and global economic activities (Mbozi, 2019). 1.1.5 Structure of Grade 12 Examinations The English language examination consists of two written papers. Paper 1, coded as 1121/1, assesses learners' composition writing skills and is divided into two sections. Section A presents six questions, from which candidates must choose and answer one. These questions vary in their requirements and cover different types of composition outlined in the English Senior Secondary Syllabus, including narrative, descriptive, discursive, and expository writing. Section B contains a single compulsory guided composition question. Candidates are required to write two compositions in total. The paper carries 40 marks and has a duration of 1 hour and 45 minutes. Paper 2, coded as 1121/2, consists of three compulsory questions. Question 1 is divided into two sections, focusing on language structure. Section 1 assesses grammar, including vocabulary, lexis, cloze tests, and spelling. Section 2 evaluates sentence transformations, covering various sentence structures and tenses. Question 2 tests reading comprehension skills, while Question 3 assesses summary writing abilities. The paper is allocated 60 marks and has a duration of two hours. 8 1.1.6 Performance in the Zambian Education System Examinations play an important role in education. They provide an opportunity for stakeholders to know what learners have learnt and how well they have learnt. Examination performance is a means through which schools give an account of learners’ achievement and underachievement. The Zambian government through the Ministry of Education places a high value on examinations. On the one hand, this seems to reflect the influence of an examination-oriented education system in Zambia. On the other hand, this could also be due to the fact that examination performance would determine if learners could pursue their higher education with success. The Examinations Council of Zambia (ECZ) reports from 2014 to 2021 have indicated that many learners perform poorly in English. Writing continues to present a major educational challenge for English language learners. Adas and Bakir (2013) state that writing is an intricate and complex task. Learners’ underachievement in English raises a concern over their translation of knowledge of language skills in a practical situation. The ECZ reports highlight that grade 12 examination candidates present a range of problems in their performance in English language. The ECZ report of 2020 cited poor knowledge of grammar, spellings, limited vocabulary and poor sentence construction among others as some of the factors responsible for the pupils’ poor performance in English language. As a result, it is then significant to explore the statistics of results in English language in the national examinations. Sakala (2020) argued that grade 12 results in second language teaching were not impressive because the language is an imposition on the Zambian education system, and it was not very common in most rural school and communities. She argues that second language teaching like English has remained a challenge for most learners and teachers in schools as teachers are not mandated to use their local language to present the content knowledge to learners with little knowledge in English. Due to this, results in English have continued to be poor at grade 12. However, the Ministry of Education’s point of view is that learner performance is improving from time to time because the ministry has put in mechanisms to achieve its mandate, (MOE, 2019). Ogawa (2010) argues that the mastery of curriculum can be determined partly through the national examination. As such a high score in the national examination is an indicator of high quality education. Considering the contribution English may have on the overall performance in the examinations, there is need to explore the measures geared to improve on performance of English language. The learner performance in 9 English language, nonetheless, is not very impressive where quality pass is concerned. This concern has come because English is held in high esteem in the country and a learner who fails English cannot enter a college or university despite passing very well in other subjects. According to the statistics obtained from the Examinations Council of Zambia (ECZ) reports, the following poor performance rates were recorded: 9 Table 1: National Grade 12 English Language Results from 2018 to 2023 Source: ECZ 10 Table 1 shows annual data on male and female candidates who entered and sat for the English examinations from 2018 to 2023, including the number of absentees. The columns labelled g1 to g9 represent different grade categories or performance bands in the examinations. Key observations from the table include: The number of candidates (both entered and sat) generally increased over the years, with a significant rise in 2023. Male candidates consistently outnumbered females each year except for 2023, and their performance distribution showed slight variations across the grade categories. The number of absentees varied each year, with a relatively higher number in 2023. Generally, there were more absentees among males across the years. The distribution of candidates across g1 to g9 fluctuated suggesting variations in performance trends by year and gender. Table 2: National Grade 12 result statistics in percentage Source: ECZ Table 2 shows the national Grade 12 examination statistics in percentage for the years 2018 to 2023. The percentage of top-performing pupils (G1) fluctuated but remained relatively low, with a noticeable increase in 2023.A significant number of pupils consistently fell in the G6 category, peaking in 2023 at 20.67%. The G9 was highest in 2020 (16.87%) but decreased in subsequent years, showing some improvement. 11 Table 3: National Grade 12 result statistics in actual numbers Source: ECZ Table 3 table shows the actual number of candidates achieving each grade (G1 to G9) in the National Grade 12 examinations from 2018 to 2023. The number of candidates sitting for the examinations had generally increased, reaching the highest in 2023 (163,200). The highest concentration of candidates consistently fell in G6, with the highest in 2023 (33,740). The number of pupils who failed English completely (G9) fluctuated, with 2020 having the highest failure count (24,722) and a decrease in 2021 and 2022 before rising again in 2023 (17,061). 12 The data is presented in table form for easy comprehension. The data presented in Table 1 shows the total number of candidates who sat for the English examination and the grades they obtained are shown in percentage. Table 2 shows the actual number of candidates who sat for the examinations and the grades they obtained are converted from numbers to percentages. Table 3 shows the performance trends across the years 2018 to 2023. The percentages were converted to the actual numbers. Table 3 shows that a total number of 119 187 candidates sat for the English language examinations and 11,497 (9.65%) failed English language in the year 2018. In 2019, a total number of 134, 578 candidates sat for English language at Grade 12 level and 14,440 (10.73%) candidates failed the English language. In 2020, 146 558 Grade 12 candidates sat for English language and out of the total number, 24,722 (16.87%) failed the English language. In 2021, the total number of Grade 12 candidates who sate for English examination was 121, 443 and a total number of 12, 256 (10.09%) candidates failed. In 2022, 124, 795 Grade 12 candidates sat for Grade 12 examination and 13,668 (10.95%) candidates failed English language. Meanwhile, in 2023, a total candidature of 163, 200 sat for English language examinations. Out of this number, 17,061 (10.45%) failed the examinations completely. Table 4: National Grade 12 cumulative result statistics for G7, G8 and G9 YEAR NO. SAT G7 G8 G9 ACTUAL NUMBER OF STUDENTS WHO PERFORMED POORLY IN ENGLISH CUMULATIVE TOTAL POOR PERFORMANCE IN PERCENTAGE (%) 2018 119,187 17.14 15.21 9.65 50, 057 42.00 2019 134 578 16.27 15.89 10.73 57, 721 42.89 2020 146,558 11.27 13.20 16.87 60, 587 41.34 2021 121,443 15.53 14.46 10.09 48, 676 40.08 2022 124,795 15.06 12.31 10.95 47, 834 38.32 2023 163,200 15.05 13.85 10.45 64, 226 39.35 Table 4 shows the cumulative performance of Grade 12 pupils in the lowest three grade bands (G7–G9), which indicate poor performance in English. 13 From 2018 to 2023, over 38% of pupils each year who sat for Grade 12 English national examinations fell into these lower bands, with the highest cumulative poor performance percentage in 2019 (42.89%). Generally, in English there was poor performance for a compulsory subject and a compulsory entry subject into tertiary education. This is a big problem because it means that regardless of how these pupils performed in other subjects, they could not proceed to tertiary education for further training without re-writing English. Despite English being one of the official languages in Zambia and a language of instruction used from upper primary to tertiary level as stipulated in ‘The Language of Instruction Policy of 2013’ many Grade 12 pupils still fail English. From 2018 to 2023- between 38.32 % and 42.89% Grade 12 pupils country-wide obtained grades ranging from Grade 7 to Grade 9 which would not enable them to proceed to tertiary education. As the main language of government, commerce and education in Zambia and the world-over, English is a key subject for academic progression. Pupils need to obtain a credit pass which is the minimum requirement for admission into higher institutions of learning in Zambia. By implication, the number of pupils that are eligible for admission into the undergraduate courses in the universities and other higher institutions of learning in Zambia has been on a consistent decline for the past few six years and will continue to be so if the situation is not addressed. From the statistics presented in table 1, it can be seen that the percentages seem less yet the number of candidates who failed English language is alarming. Teachers are in schools and teaching and learning takes place and yet the failing numbers are too high. These high numbers of pupils failing English made it necessary to investigate pupils’ underachievement in English. Therefore, this study could bring about the understanding as to why such Grade 12 poor performance rates are being recorded in the English language. Therefore, this study was undertaken to critically analyse the performance of Grade 12 pupils in English in Zambian secondary schools, focusing on the Copperbelt Province, to address the challenge of poor performance in the Grade 12 English National Examinations. English, as a key and pivotal subject, significantly influences pupils' academic trajectories within the Zambian educational context. The ongoing concern among educators, policymakers, and researchers regarding pupils' persistent poor 14 performance in the English examinations highlights its critical importance. As the official language and language of instruction in Zambian schools, English is vital for pupils' academic and professional future. Nevertheless, the persistent underachievement in English examinations suggests a deeper systemic problem that requires a thorough academic examination. 1.2 Statement of the Problem English proficiency is essential for university admission and career opportunities. At Grade 12 level, learners are expected to display advanced writing skills and should be proficient. This level of mastery is measured during national examinations. Examinations are the key measure of quality education in Zambia. Grade 12 English results have been consistently low in the Copperbelt Province. Studies by (Mulenga & Mwanza, 2019; Banda & Phiri, 2019; Simumba, 2019) highlight continued poor results in English. National poor performance rates (2018–2023) ranged between 38.32% and 42.89%. This trend has far-reaching implications. The persistent decline suggests that existing interventions have been inadequate in addressing the root causes of this issue. There is need for a deeper investigation into causes and improvement strategies. Despite this revelation, no study has comprehensively analysed statistical performance data, the quality of examination papers, and contributing factors within a single study in the Copperbelt Province. 1. 3. Purpose of the Study The purpose of the study is to critically analyse the causes of Grade 12 pupils’ poor performance in English language in national examinations and how it can be improved. 1.4 Research objectives In an attempt to achieve the above objective, the following research objectives were formulated. The objectives of the study were to: i. Analyse the quality of Grade 12 examination questions; ii. Analyse the nature of performance of Grade 12 pupils in English subject in the Copperbelt Province; iii. Examine teacher and learner views of factors contributing to poor English performance among Grade 12 pupils in selected secondary schools in the Copperbelt Province; iv. Suggest strategies to improve pupil performance in Grade 12 examinations in secondary schools in the Copperbelt Province of Zambia. 15 1.4.1 Research questions To achieve the objectives above, the study will attempt to answer the following specific questions: i. How is the quality of Grade 12 examination questions? ii. How is the performance of Grade 12 pupils in English in the Copperbelt Province? iii. What factors contribute to Grade 12 pupils in selected secondary schools in the Copperbelt Province performing poorly in English final examinations? iv. What strategies can be used to improve pupils' performance in Grade 12 examinations in secondary schools in the Copperbelt Province? 1.5 Significance of the study A thorough analysis will help uncover the major factors contributing to poor performance in English national examinations in the Copperbelt Province of Zambia thus contributing to literature on research-based evidence on the factors. Understanding the root causes of poor performance may allow for targeted interventions that can improve pupils ' proficiency in English, thereby increasing their chances of academic and professional success. This kind of knowledge will not only add to the existing research based literature on the subject matter but may also provide a useful database that could be used as a tangible reference by relevant education authorities and other stakeholders interested in devising intervention measures aimed at improving pupil performance. Results from the study may be used for more meaningful in-house capacity building for secondary school teachers of English and may also help in finding solutions to problems related to English language teaching and learning in various schools in Zambia. The study might advance knowledge and provide basis for further research on similar topical issues. Pupils, teachers, administrators, parents, curriculum planners and other research enthusiasts could benefit from this study. 1.6 Delimitation of study According to Calabrese (2009) delimitations are things a researcher puts in place to narrow the study to in order to focus on specific aspects in terms of the research methodology, participant characteristic, context or research site or phenomenon that was studied during the research. The study was delimited to 8 selected secondary schools in the Copperbelt Province, 24 teachers of English who were teaching Grade 16 12 classes, 80 current Grade 12 pupils, 16 former Grade 12 from selected schools, 8 deputy head teachers and 8 Heads of Languages Department of selected schools, 16 parents who had children in selected schools, the Senior Education Standards Officer (SESO) for Languages within the Copperbelt Province of Zambia, 5 selected national examiners and 2 officials from the Examinations Council of Zambia. The schools were selected from the urban and rural areas for differential effect. 1.7 Limitation of the study Limitations are possible short comings or influences that can affect the study and are not under the control of the researcher. According to Simon & Goes (2013) they limit the extent to which a study can go and may affect the end results of the study. Limitations are described as constraints or restrictions to one’s study on the research methodology and design and cannot be controlled by the researcher (Miles, 2017). These restrictions are outside the researcher’s control and are essential to the study that could affect the generalisability of the results (Terrell, 2016). Further, limitations are possible weaknesses in a study that are out of the researcher’s control (Leedy & Ormrod, 2014; Lewis, 2015) and are important to the possible effects on the outcome of the study. The study had a methodological limitation due to its descriptive case study design, which restricted the generalizability of findings beyond the Copperbelt Province. Different contexts and cases in other provinces may not align with those observed in this study. Additionally, the study addressed a somewhat sensitive issue regarding pupil performance, making it challenging to access key stakeholders. Many were not readily available, and bureaucratic hurdles complicated data collection from government offices, factors beyond the researcher’s control. Grade 12 English performance statistics were considered confidential, making it difficult to obtain data from the provincial office let alone district offices despite official authorisation. The gatekeepers were reluctant to share this information, fearing potential misuse. Some schools expressed concerns that the data might be accessed by unauthorised parties and used improperly. Even after presenting an introductory letter from the University of Zambia and a permission letter from the District Education Board Secretary (DEBS) office, most schools were hesitant to release information. Furthermore, many schools lacked complete records of pupil performance. Without concrete data on learner performance, it would have been difficult to assess the true extent of academic challenges or the effectiveness of interventions. Performance data helps identify patterns and whether 17 challenges are widespread or not. The researcher would have loved to interview both the item writers and national draft setters, but this was not possible. To address the challenges of gatekeeping and incomplete data, I collaborated with the Examinations Council of Zambia to obtain statistics and grade distributions for 2018–2023. However, all but one school declined to provide internal assessment items used to evaluate learners which made it difficult to track where learner performance challenges began. Another challenge was participants' reluctance to be recorded. A total of 120 respondents (73.17%) refused to be recorded due to past experiences, requiring me to document discussions manually. Only 44 respondents (26.83%) consented to being recorded. 1.8 Description of the Research Site Source:https://www.google.com/search?sca_esv=7b7b3c18afc3e931&rlz=1C1CHBF _enNO1001NO1001&sxsrf=AHTn8zodLbBnbmM7JY1qF Figure 5: Location of the Copperbelt Province Figure 5 shows the research site of the study. The research site for the study was the Copperbelt Province, named for its rich copper production. The province has a total of 304 secondary schools, comprising 248 public, 37 private, 16 grant-aided, and 3 community secondary schools. For primary education, there are 1,240 schools in total, including 516 government-run, 5 grant-aided, 325 private, and 394 community primary schools. There are more primary schools than secondary schools in the province. The majority of both primary and secondary schools in the province are government-run. This study was conducted in Zambia’s Copperbelt Province, one of the largest 18 provinces with a high number of candidates sitting for the English language national examinations. Poor performance in English within the province significantly impacts the national progression rate to tertiary education. Additionally, no previous study has comprehensively analysed statistical performance data, examination question quality, and contributing factors within a single study in the Copperbelt Province, highlighting the need for this research. 1.9 Key operational terms Attitude: In this study attitude will mean the teachers’/ pupils’ judgment or feelings towards English, which is reflected through their behaviour in teaching/learning of English as a Second Language. Commitment: In this study will mean pupils’ consistent effort in learning English as a Second Language reflected through their cooperation in and outside class. Critical Discourse In this study, critical discourse refers to the systematic analysis of language use in social, political, and educational contexts to uncover underlying power relations, ideologies, and biases. It involves examining how language shapes and reflects societal structures, influencing perceptions, interactions, and decision- making. Facilities: In the study will be taken as the buildings, equipment and services provided for teaching and learning purposes. Language proficiency: ability to use the English language accurately in writing and speaking so as to effectively communicate with others. Performance: In the study refers to the outcome of learners’ ability in the national examinations measured in terms of their grades. Poor performance In this study poor performance is obtaining G7, G8 and G9 in the English language examination. School Principal In the study School Principal refers to the teacher in charge of a secondary school. Quality In the context of this study, quality of examination papers means syllabus coverage, clarity of questions, assessment of different cognitive levels and competences and assessment of language skills. 19 Teacher Absenteeism Not being in school for the prescribed time or being in school but not attending to learners during timetabled periods. 1.10 Summary Chapter one outlines the proposal of the research which includes the background to the problem, statement of the problem, Theoretical framework and objectives which carry the main and specific objectives, research questions and significance of the study. This chapter provides the general overview of the whole research which is based on ‘A Critical Discourse Analysis of Grade 12 Pupils’ Poor Performance in the English Language Examinations in the Copperbelt Province of Zambia’. The next chapter will present the review of related literature. 20 CHAPTER TWO REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE 2.0 Overview This chapter reviews relevant literature from various studies conducted in Zambia and beyond, addressing the research problem. The review is structured around the four objectives of the study and concludes with a summary and identification of research gaps. 2.1 Quality of Grade 12 English Examination Questions The quality of national examination questions, particularly in subjects such as English, plays a critical role in determining not only the academic achievements of pupils but also the effectiveness of a country’s education system. In Zambia, the Grade 12 English examination is a crucial determinant of a pupil’s ability to transition into tertiary education. This section of the literature review seeks to critically analyse studies conducted over the past seven years that evaluate the quality of Grade 12 English examination papers in Zambia and other countries. Rind and Mari (2019) employed a mixed-methods approach, combining both quantitative and qualitative methods. The theoretical framework guiding their research was Bloom’s Taxonomy, which categorises cognitive learning objectives into different levels. The researchers analysed examination papers from the past ten years to assess the types of cognitive demands placed on pupils and the frequency and variety of topics covered. Additionally, qualitative data were collected through interviews with teachers and learners from selected schools. The purpose of interviews was to evaluate the impact that examination patterns had on classroom practices. Their findings showed that examination papers primarily emphasised lower-order cognitive skills which in turn promoted limited teaching tendencies among teachers who more often than naught only taught topics that were frequently examined in national examinations and did not teach comprehensive aspects of language learning. Consequently, pupils were forced to memorise rather internalise concepts leading to limited ability to interact with content at a much more challenging level. This approach does not foster the development of critical thinking or analytical skills. These findings confirm previous studies that have revealed negative impact of high-stakes examinations on the depth and quality of pupil learning (Au, 2011; Jones, 2013). 21 Rind and Mari’s (2019) study used Bloom’s Taxonomy as a framework to methodically assess the cognitive demands of examination questions and that choice set this study apart. The Taxonomy framework brought out deep insights about how examination design correlates with and proportionately influences teaching and learning practices in classrooms. Furthermore, the mixed-methods approach assisted the researchers to triangulate their findings increasing their credibility and enhanced the understanding of the problem under review. However, the study only used information from a single examination board resulting in its limitation to generalise its findings to other districts and conditions. Even though the research explains the impact of examination patterns, it does not really give an in-depth understanding of other factors that have a bearing on teaching and learning in a real classroom situation. Nonetheless, the study by Rind and Mari (2019) does indicate the need for educational reforms to improve the quality of teaching and learning in Pakistan’s secondary education system. Smith and Nkosi (2020) carried out a study whose aim was to assess the quality of Grade 12 English examination papers in Africa with a special focus on how well these examination papers aligned with curriculum outcomes and how they promoted critical thinking skills. They used a constructivist paradigm underscoring the communally created nature of knowledge and learning. The study used a mixed-methods design. Examination papers were quantitatively analysed and interviews were conducted with ten curriculum developers and subject experts to obtain qualitative data. The examination papers analysed covered the period from 2016 -2020 and these were purposively sampled. Content analysis of the examination papers was conducted to examine question types and cognitive demand. Quantitative data were analysed using statistical procedures to classify questions by cognitive difficulty, while qualitative data from the interviews were analysed thematically. The selection of the mixed-methods approach provided a holistic understanding of the question papers and qualitative interviews with curriculum developers and subject experts provided other valuable insights which could not be obtained from content analysis of the examination papers. However, this study did not provide pupil performance data for the period reviewed to see how they performed on various questions and how they showed critical thinking through their answers to the various cognitive demands as outlined in the examinations. 22 Kamau conducted a research in 2019 and focused on assessing the validity and reliability of Grade 12 English language examination papers for students in Kenya. He utilised the positivist research paradigm. The study adopted a quasi-experimental design, where the performance of students in various components of the English examination (comprehension, essay writing, and language structure) was compared over five years (2015–2019). To be as representative as possible, two hundred examination papers were sampled from different regions of Kenya using stratified random sampling. Reliability of the examination papers was determined through the use of Test-retest and internal consistency methods. Teacher evaluations and standardised test scores were compared with examination results to assess validity. Further correlation analyses were carried out to determine the relationship between pupils’ examination scores and other performance indicators. Kamau used Cronbach’s alpha to measure reliability. This study did not only analyse the content of the examination papers but placed strong emphasis on validity and reliability which gave it unique strength. Moreover, by integrating several performance indicators, the study presented a wide range assessment of examination value. However, the quasi-experimental design did not provide explanations for external factors such as the quality of teaching and or availability of resources that could have affected pupil performance. Another research was conducted by Johnson (2023) in the United Kingdom (UK) to assess the quality of examination papers in the UK. He wanted to find out if examinations in the UK did evaluate critical thinking and creativity. The study employed a critical theory paradigm to show how the power dynamics take centre stage in the examination process.Using an ethnographic design, Johnson conducted in-depth interviews with thirty (30) secondary school teachers and examination moderators, along with document analysis of the 2020 - 2023 examination papers. Participants were selected using a non-random snowball sampling method. Thematic analysis was employed to explore participants’ views on whether the examinations promoted critical thinking and creativity, while grounded theory was used to analyse the data and identify themes related to power structures, assessment practices, and their influence on learning. The use of the ethnographic approach brought out rich insights from the teachers’ and moderators’ experiences providing a comprehensive understanding of examination practices. However, the study results could not be generalised due to the 23 use of non-random sampling since there is a likelihood that participants could have had comparable perspectives. Kingori, Wambua, and Kimani (2021) conducted a study which they titled "Curriculum-examination alignment in Kenyan secondary schools: An evaluation of Grade 12 national examinations. They used a mixed-methods design to evaluate the alignment between the Kenyan national examinations and the national curriculum. They did content analysis of the examination papers to examine how consistent they were with the national curriculum and also administered surveys to teachers to get their perceptions on the alignment. Survey data were analysed using descriptive statistics while content analysis was used to analyse examination papers. However, the study surveyed a small sample of teachers which was not very representative of broader national trends. The study did not also provide pupil performance data to help the researchers’ measure if there was at all any misalignment on pupil expected outcomes and the actual examination outcomes. Ahmed Gumaa Siddiek conducted research in Sudan. The research was conducted to examine the characteristics of the Sudan School Certificate English Examinations (SSC) in terms of content validity and completeness. To collect data, a questionnaire was administered through which the researcher examined attitudes of teachers of English towards the completeness and content validity of the (SSC) English examinations. The researcher also conducted a document analysis of (SSC) English language examinations and examined the elements of the examination items taken by students during the period 2003-2008. Furthermore, he analysed the (NORMS) of the 2003 Technical Guide of Secondary Examinations, which stipulated that the test developer must take into account the general rules of good examinations when writing the test. The research was quantitative in nature. Seventy-seven (77) markers of SSC participated in the study. The data was collected using a questionnaire and processed analytically by machine. The results showed that the Sudan School Certificate English Examination (SSCEE) in its current form was not a standardised academic achievement test as it did not reflect students' actual performance in English, as standardised tests are intended to attempt to provide authenticated information about it to deliver achievements of the individual learner in their course or unit. These tests also lacked content validity. A test is valid in terms of content if its content represents a representative sample of the linguistic skills, structures, etc. that it is intended to address. The results also showed that the examinations were not comprehensive as they 24 did not cover the topics, elements and language skills contained in the textbooks. The items in the SSCEE were not representative of what could be found in the textbooks and had no content validity as they did not test all of the language skills presented in the curriculum, forcing teachers to focus only on teaching examination techniques rather than focusing on imparting language skills. The study ultimately concluded that the SSCEE were achievement tests and not school-based stan